A total of 48 native speakers of Chinese and 57 native speakers of Japanese in the study. Of the 105 subjects, 72 in pre-academic intensive English programs, and 33 in basic writing or freshman composition courses as fully matriculated students. The subjects from four institutions: Georgia State University; Southern Illinois University; the University of California, Los Angeles; and the University of Washington.
All 105 subjects were high school graduates, and almost all from high school in their native countries. Of the 46 subjects with undergraduate degrees, only 1 that degree from a U.S. university. In addition, 10 subjects graduate degrees, three of which at a U.S. university. The average length of time that subjects in the U.S. was 11½ months, with a range of 1 month to 17 years.
Subjects’ language proficiency from low-intermediate to advanced. Subjects to one of three language proficiency levels on the basis of either information about their placement in intensive courses or the criteria required for admission into regular curricula. The low-intermediate group, which of 8 subjects, as the midrange of intensive programs, with TOEFL scores in the 420-480 range or Michigan Test scores between 42 and 60. The high-intermediate group, with 64 subjects, as the highest level of intensive programs, with TOEFL scores in the 480-520 range or Michigan Test scores between 60 and 78. The advanced group, with 33 subjects, of those subjects enrolled in regular curriculum classes with TOEFL scores above 525 or Michigan test scores above 80.